Deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations (where segments of chromosomes break and reattach elsewhere). 4. Molecular Foundations
Having extra complete sets of chromosomes (common in plants). Principles of Genetics and Cytogenetics
Chemical modifications to DNA or histones that affect gene activity without changing the actual DNA sequence. Principles of Genetics and Cytogenetics
The process of pairing and ordering all the chromosomes of an organism, providing a genome-wide snapshot of an individual's chromosomes. Cell Division: Principles of Genetics and Cytogenetics